Abstracts for Morning Presentations (10:00 to 11:00am)

Space Mission Operations TeamCoordination: D-Logger Prototypes
Jane T. Malin (NASA JSC), Carroll Thronesbery (S&K Electronics), Jiajie Zhang (Univ. Texas, Houston), &Yang Gong (Univ. Texas, Houston)
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Concepts and prototypes are discussed for a Databased console logger (D-Logger) to meet new challenges for coordination among space mission flight controllers and subsystem engineers in future exploration missions. The challenges include communication delays, increased crew autonomy, multiple concurrent missions, reduced-size flight support teams that include multidisciplinary flight controllers during quiescent periods, and migrating some flight support activities to flight controller offices. A spiral development approach has been adopted, making simple but useful functions available early and adding more extensive support later. A late and important development for the diverse user groups is support for customizing logger functions for specialist domains. Evaluations have guided the design, development and evolution of the D-Logger prototype and continue to provide valuable user influence on upcoming requirements. They have included expert walkthroughs of paper prototypes, user walkthroughs of working prototypes, observed trial usage during mission simulations and missions to evaluate new operations concepts, and online support for user feedback. D-Logger is part of a suite of tools designed to support future operations personnel and crew. While these tools can be used independently, when used together, they provide yet another level of support by interacting with one another. Recommendations are offered for the development of similar projects.

Influences of Web Site Structure, Navigation, and Internet Self-Efficacy on Task Performance and Web site Evaluation
Sarah E. Greer & Lauren V. Scharff (Stephen F. Austin State University)
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Previous research has identified navigational elements and site information architecture as important factors in how effectively users can complete Web tasks, such as locating specific content within a Web site, yet little research has focused specifically on how site depth and breadth impact user task performance (e.g. Krug, 2000; Nielsen, 2000; Palmer, 2002; Yu & Han, 2001). Past research has also examined the impact of self-efficacy on Web user behavior, suggesting low efficacy users tend to accept rather than question computer systems, have poorer searching strategies, and tend to use the Internet less than high efficacy users (e.g. Liaw, 2002; Tsai & Tsai, 2003). The current experiment focused on the effects of Web site navigational elements, the location (depth) of content, and Internet self efficacy on users? ability to complete a task by reaching target content within a Web site, correctly answer questions based on this content, and Web site usability ratings. We manipulated site design and the depth of target content in the site. Each of fifty-two participants viewed one of three Web site designs: (1) plain context menu, (2) emphasized context menu, (3) no context menu. Participants were asked to locate specific content on the site and answer 10 questions based on this content. The answers to the questions were located on pages wide (two or fewer links away) or deep (three to five links away) in the Web site. In a post-test, we measured participants? subjective ratings about the site and information about their past experience using the Internet, focusing on Internet self-efficacy and years of Internet experience. It was hypothesized participants would have more incomplete tasks and more question errors when searching for information located on pages deep in a site and when using the site without a context menu. Additionally, it was believed low Internet self-efficacy participants would complete fewer tasks and make more question errors, but would provide higher Web site ratings than the high efficacy group. Two ANOVAs indicated the participants had significantly more incomplete tasks and more question errors when searching for information located deep in the site. Site design had no impact on participants? ability to successfully reach the target page or question accuracy; however, participants with six or more years of Internet experience tended to rate the design with the plain context menu as more usable than the other two designs. High Internet efficacy participants gave significantly higher usability ratings, regardless of design. Internet efficacy was significantly correlated to years of Internet experience and to participants? ease in locating the question information on the site. Internet efficacy had no impact on participants? ability to successfully reach the target page or question accuracy.

Occupational Injury/Illness Risk Factor Data in the Manual Materials Handling Industry
Brian N. Craig (Lamar University), Jerry Congleton (Texas A&M University), Carter Kerk (South Dakota School of Mines and Technology), Alfred Amendola (Texas A&M University), & William Gaines (Liberty Mutual Insurance Group).
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Topic: A prospective field study of the relationship of potential personal, non-occupational, occupational, and psychosocial risk factors with occupational injury/illness.
Research Objective: A total of 126 risk factors were measured and prospectively evaluated for statistically significant relationships with occupational injury in 442 manual material handlers, working for three different companies, at nine US locations, and encompassing 15 different job descriptions. OSHA logs were used to ascertain evidence of occupational injury (dichotomous) within this population for one year after the testing and measurement was completed.
Relevant Findings: Higher occurrences of injury were significantly associated with six risk factors in this overall multivariate analysis, with odds ratios in the multivariate analysis varying from 1.82 ? 10.78. The significantly (p < 0.05) related risk factors in the overall multivariate model were body mass index, aerobic power, frequency of lift/lower, average weight of lift, the subjects responses that their jobs were not a service to the public, and the subjects responses that they were not satisfied with their jobs.
Conclusion: The present study demonstrated significant evidence of the association of occupational injury occurrence through the significantly related risk factors presented in the grouped risk factors (personal and non-occupational, occupational, and psychosocial) multivariate models.

Cognitive Load Dynamics as an Approach to Training and Testing Individual Differences in Decision Making
Herbert N. Maier (TactiCog)
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Cognitive capacities of speed, flexibility, adaptability and knowledge management are stretched in competition. Much research on competition is done through computer games and simulations. This lacks a significant psychomotor involvement which puzzled Endsley and Bolstad (1994) with its correlation to situation awareness (SA). The predominant source of data involving a significant psychomotor component is sports such as football or soccer. These sports are difficult to analyze, having too many players and available options to be measured in detail.

Certain martial arts training activities have a long empirical history of training complex psychomotor skills so that the skills are selectable under combined stress of time pressure, high risk, complexity and uncertainty. This aspect classifies these activities within Naturalistic Decision Making (NDM), as well as SA. One such activity (a small network of drills) has been a focus, with the purpose of developing a model and a method for studying dyadic cognitive load dynamics. Maier and Taber (in production) demonstrated the strength of selecting a small, structured decision-system model. The drill network enforces a decision/action cycle on each member of a dyad approximately once per second. Maintaining continuity of the activity and also awareness/vigilance to the partner?s actions preempts investment in one?s own planning.

Maier and Taber showed the value of time-series analysis in revealing the importance of evolving context in individual decisions. They presented a measurable definition of Initiative, and a scale (CAIO) for its cognitive load. An inverse relationship between Initiative and Overload supported a system interpretation, both within-person and between-person.

Maier (2004a; 2004b) showed the need for multiple performance dimensions in capturing individual differences as expressed in a complex competitive activity. Strong interactions between dimensions of Speed, Diversity, Conformity and Fluency showed distinct individual strategies of cognitive load management. These strategies changed measurably after an instructional intervention. The Fluency dimension clearly supports a dynamical systems interpretation of dyadic interaction, distributing cognitive load as a ?commodity? both within-person and between-person in the dyad.

The present report consolidates and integrates the time-series and the 4-dimensional approaches to the model, and discusses the method's potential contribution to research areas of cognitive engineering / decision making, individual differences, training, and testing / evaluation.

Endsley, M. R. and C. A. Bolstad (1994). "Individual differences in pilot situation awareness." International Journal of Aviation Psychology 4(3): 241-264.
Maier, H. N. (2004a). Measurement of cognitive load dynamics in a high-speed oppositional task. Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 48th Annual Meeting, New Orleans, Mira Digital Publishing.
Maier, H. N. (2004b). Measurement of cognitive load in a traditional martial arts training model. Dissertation in Educational Psychology. Texas A&M University.
Maier, H. N. and K. H. Taber (in production). Measurement of initiative in high-speed tactical decision making. Expertise out of context: Proceedings of the 6th International Conference on Naturalistic Decision Making. R. Hoffman, in production.